Voyageurs and Their Canoes

Voyageur, the French word for traveler, refers to the contracted employees who worked as canoe paddlers, bundle carriers, and general laborers for fur trading firms from the 1650s until the 1850s. 

Voyageurs were also known as "engagés", a loose French expression translated as "employees".

Many of my La Prairie ancestors were both Voyageurs (working for others) and Coureurs des Bois (working for themselves), so I tend to use the term Voyageur as a catch-all for either or both.

The voyageurs were the backbone of trading companies, like the NWCo, moving furs and trade goods over a route that spanned roughly 3100 miles or more.

Canoes were loaded with trade goods, and set off from Lachine in May. They proceeded to the church of St-Anne-de-Bellevue, where they received a blessing, which signaled the start of their trip.

Voyageurs were expected to work at least 14 hours a day, paddle 50 strokes a minute and be able to carry two "pièces" of 90 pounds across each portage. 

It was hazardous work, Voyageurs suffered from drowning, hernias, broken limbs, twisted spines, rheumatism as well as clouds of black flies and mosquitoes against which the best repellent was a mix of bear grease and skunk urine. 

The voyageur's daily routine was a back-breaking one: for the 6 to 8 weeks he was traveling, he was roused as early as 3 am, and set off without eating breakfast. 

Before 8 o'clock, a breakfast stop was made on a beach. At around 2 in the afternoon, a midday lunch was served on the boat, though often lunch was only an opportunity to chew a piece of pemmican or "biscuit" while paddling. 

A stop was made for a few minutes each hour to allow the men to have a pipe. This event was so important that distances came to be measured in pipes: 3 pipes might equal 15 to 20 miles of travel. A 20 mile long lake would be measured as 4 pipes or 4 hours of travel, depending on wind and waves. 

At nightfall, the canoes were unloaded and turned over to serve as shelters. 

Supper, which was pre-cooked the night before, was warmed and served. The men dropped down on turf, moss or beach with their heads under the overturned canoes. A tarp provided protection from wind and rain. 

During the night, a kettle filled with 9 quarts of peas and water was hung over the fire, added to it were strips of pork. This simmered until daylight, when the cook added four "biscuits" and continued to let it simmer. 

At dawn they were awakened, and canoes were loaded and launched. The swelling of the peas and biscuit had now filled the kettle to the brim, so thick that a stick would stand upright in it. Three pipes, or about 12 miles of paddling were done before breakfast.

Many voyageurs had long hair, which served as protection from the mosquitoes which beset all those who voyaged. 

Voyageurs dressed themselves with a long sleeve shirt, knee length breeches, red toque, buckskin leggings, a pair of moose hide moccasins, a hooded capote, and a red assomption sash. 

There were two categories of voyageurs

• the "Montreal men", or "pork eaters" who paddled from Montreal to Grand Portage [after 1803 — Fort William] for the annual rendezvous and back to Montreal. The term "pork-eater" or "mangeur de lard" comes from the fact that French-Canadians were accustomed to eat pork meat boiled in a soup, a meal quite enjoyed by hard-working farmers.

• the "North men" or "hivernants" were voyageurs who wintered in the interior and brought down furs to Grand Portage to meet the summer brigades coming from Montreal. 

At the Height of Land, a rite of passage was practiced that would allow a voyageur to "become" a north man. The newcomer was sprinkled with water from the first north-flowing stream, and made to promise never to kiss another man's wife without his permission. This ended with the drinking of rum and a barrage of back-slapping. 

Within the two categories of voyageurs, there were three sub-types

• the avant or bowman: the man located in the front (or bow) of the canoe who acted as the guide.

• the gouvernail or steersman: the man who would sit or stand at the stern (rear) and steer the craft by order of the bowman.

• the milieu or middleman: the men lacking experience began as paddlers in the middle. After becoming knowledgeable with the art of canoeing, they would become steersmen. Because of the skill and experience required, the bowsmen and steersmen were paid twice the rate of middlemen.

Because the voyageur system was developed under the French regime, most of the men hired by trade companies were French-Canadians, they were recruited in French-Canadian villages and towns, notably Québec, Montréal, Trois-Rivières and smaller villages like Sorel, La Prairie, Châteauguay, Chambly, Boucherville, Longueuil, St-Ours and L'Assomption.

The Canoe – The Workhorse of the Fur Trade

It is not known for sure when the birch bark canoe was first developed. However, the Indians’ birch bark canoe was the ideal craft for the fur trade where traveling through the interior required a light weight craft that could be carried across frequent portages and yet manage a heavy load of cargo.

It is known that the Algonquin Indians began using birch bark canoes patterned after those designed by the Ojibwe around the time the fur trade began.

Voyageur Canoe Types

Several different types of canoes were used. They differed mostly in length and the number of men they could carry along with the trade goods or fur pelts. The two most common types were…

• Canot du Maitre (Montreal Canoe) used on the trip from Montreal to Grand Portage, a large canoe was needed. It must be able to handle the dangerous waters of the Great Lakes and it had to handle large amounts trade goods and provisions going out as well as the fur pelts coming back. 

The Montreal Canoe was 30-40 feet long and was manned by 8-16 voyageurs. Empty, it could weigh more than 200 lbs., but could still be carried by four men over the portages as necessary.

Contents of a Montreal Canoe as it leaves Montreal for Grand Portage

• Sixty packages of merchandise and provisions weighing 90 to 100 lbs. each, placed on either side of the canoe to make a balanced load.

• Eight men. Each man was allowed one bag of personal belongings weighing 40 lbs.

• Total weight 8000 lbs or 4 tons.

• Canot du Nord (North Canoe) used most often between the remote outposts and Grand Portage. It was about 18-22 feet in length and was manned by 2-6 voyageurs. This canoe was often light enough to be carried by two men.

The contents of the North Canoe would be mostly fur pelts and the personal belongings of the men while heading to Grand Portage. Some food provisions would also be included.

On the return trip, the contents would consist of trade goods and some provisions. A typical list of contents in addition to the men and their personal gear would include:

• Merchandise (trade goods including cloth, blankets, beads, etc.), 5 bales at 90 lbs. each.

• Canal tobacco for trading, 1 bale.

• Kettles for trading, 1 bale.

• Guns for trading, 1 case.

• Iron works for trading, 1 case.

• New twist tobacco for trading, 2 rolls.

• Lead balls for the guns, 2 bags.

• Lead shot for the guns, 2 bags.

• Flour for trading, 1 bag.

• Sugar for trading, 1 keg.

• Gunpowder, 2 kegs.

• High wine, 10 kegs containing 9 gallons each, for trading.

• Total weight 3000 lbs. or 1½ tons.

Traveling By Canoe

The fur traders generally traveled in groups of canoes called a brigade. The brigade was under the general authority of the bourgeois or partner, but while they were canoeing the avant or bowsman was in charge. He would establish the route and set the pace on each day’s travel. He was responsible for the navigation of the brigade and the safety of the precious cargo. 

The bourgeois could override his directions, but usually did not. The avant was highly experienced and knew exactly what the canoe and crew could handle.

A brigade could consist of 4 to 8 canoes that would usually travel together.

To and From Montreal

The trip from Montreal to Grand Portage and back included long sections on the Great Lakes. The heavily loaded canoes stayed very close to shore when possible. 

There was a real risk of capsizing in sudden waves since winds could come up suddenly. The value of the cargo in each direction made caution necessary. However, there were sections where a choice would have to be made between caution and speed. 

Each of the Great Lakes has large bays that may be miles wide at their openings. On reaching a bay, the avant would have to choose between adding miles to the trip by traveling into the bay and staying close to shore or cutting straight across in open water.

From The Interior to Grand Portage

Traveling through the interior meant crossing smaller lakes and maneuvering up or down rivers. The risk of bad weather creating a hazard in open water was much less than for those traveling the Great Lakes. 

However, the smaller lakes and rivers meant many more portages. Since each portage involved carrying thousands of pounds of pelts, goods and equipment over rough terrain, there was a real incentive to find ways to avoid portages. Often, this meant taking the risk of running a rapids.

When a brigade would reach a portage around a rapids, a high water level might increase the temptation to run the rapids. The rocks in the rapids would be hidden by the high water and offer alternate routes that might not be available when the water was low. 

In many cases the canoe may have been emptied to avoid losing the cargo, but cutting the time it would take to portage the canoe itself. Skilled paddlers would be given the responsibility to see that the canoe made it safely to the other end. From journals we know that damage and even destruction of canoes was common. The fate of those paddling the canoe was often drowning in the rapids.

Lining or tracking was another navigation technique that could be used when the current is too fast to paddle against and when the shoreline is free of snags. A line of 60 to 100 feet long was attached to the full canoe and pulled from shore while the steersman and gear remain in the canoe. 

Canoe Paddles

Paddles were hand carved from single pieces of wood. Cedar was often the choice because it had good strength and was light weight without being brittle.

The avant in the bow and the gouvernail in the stern had longer paddles since they were often standing while navigating. Their paddles might be as long as 6 feet. The milieux had shorter paddles that probably reached to chin or eye level. 

Most of the paddles were painted on the blade. Red was a favorite color, but patterns and designs might be used as well. A good paddle with balance and a comfortable grip was a prized possession. With thousands of strokes each day, you had to have a good paddle.

My primary source for this material is from: “History - The voyageurs - McGill University,” but it has been edited using my own best knowledge.