Voyageurs and Coureurs des Bois: Pioneers of the North American Fur Trade

 

In the vast wilderness of early North America, two intertwined figures emerged as central to the fur trade: the voyageurs and the coureurs des bois. While their roles often overlapped in practice—many individuals shifted between them depending on circumstances—their distinctions in the context of the fur trade were clear. Voyageurs, also known as engagés, were contracted wage-earning canoe transportation workers employed by organized trading companies. From the 1650s to the 1850s, they served as the backbone of firms like the North West Company, focusing primarily on the licensed, long-distance transport of furs and trade goods across the continent's interior. In contrast, coureurs des bois were independent entrepreneurs, or "woods runners," who engaged in all aspects of fur trading, from trapping and negotiating with Indigenous peoples to selling pelts. These terms have been used broadly and interchangeably over time, but in the fur trade era, voyageurs emphasized logistics and labor, while coureurs des bois embodied self-directed commerce and exploration.

The lifestyle of the coureur des bois was one of unparalleled freedom and adventure, which appealed deeply to the French temperament more than to any other European group. These men relished the thrill of the unknown, the beauty of untamed nature, substantial earnings, and a life unbound by societal norms or the grueling toil of farming. They lived intimately among Indigenous peoples, adopting their ways, dress, and skills, becoming as adept in forest survival as their hosts. Most coureurs des bois lived for the moment, with little regard for the future. As one reported, "there is no life so happy, none so independent, no place where a man enjoys so much variety and freedom as in the Indian country." This magnetic pull drew men of good birth, often with military training and education, into the woods, where they roamed freely, trading directly in Indigenous villages and beyond. Without the coureurs des bois, the fur trade might not have thrived for nearly 200 years, as they pioneered routes and relationships that sustained the industry.

Voyageurs, while sharing much of this adventurous spirit, operated within a more structured framework. Recruited primarily from French-Canadian communities along the St. Lawrence Valley—such as Québec, Montréal, Trois-Rivières, Sorel, La Prairie, Châteauguay, Chambly, Boucherville, Longueuil, St-Ours, and L'Assomption—they signed contracts to paddle canoes, carry bundles, and perform general labor. Their work was grueling: at least 14 hours a day, maintaining 50 strokes per minute while navigating routes that could span over 3,100 miles. They faced constant hazards, including drowning in rapids, hernias from heavy loads, broken limbs, twisted spines, rheumatism, and relentless swarms of black flies and mosquitoes. The most effective repellent was a pungent mix of bear grease and skunk urine. Many grew long hair as an additional shield against insects.

Daily life for voyageurs followed a rigorous routine. They were roused as early as 3 a.m. without breakfast, paddling until an 8 a.m. stop for a meal on a beach. Midday lunch around 2 p.m. often consisted of pemmican or "biscuit" eaten while paddling. Hourly breaks were taken for pipe smoking, with distances measured in "pipes"—for instance, three pipes equaled 15-20 miles, or a 20-mile lake might take four pipes (about four hours), depending on wind and waves. At nightfall, they unloaded canoes to use as shelters, warmed a pre-cooked supper, and slept under overturned vessels draped with tarps. An overnight kettle simmered peas, water, and pork, with biscuits added at dawn to create a thick porridge that filled a nine-quart kettle.

Voyageurs were categorized by their routes and roles. "Montreal men" or "pork eaters"—named for the boiled pork soup enjoyed by farmers—paddled from Montreal to Grand Portage (later Fort William after 1803) for annual rendezvous and back, handling the Great Lakes' perils. "North men" or "hivernants" wintered in the interior, transporting furs to Grand Portage to meet summer brigades. A rite of passage marked the transition: at the Height of Land, newcomers were sprinkled with water from the first north-flowing stream, vowing never to kiss another's wife without permission, followed by rum and back-slapping to become a true "north man."

Within crews, positions reflected skill levels. The avant (bowman) sat at the front, guiding the route and setting the pace. The gouvernail (steersman) occupied the stern, steering based on the bowman's commands, often standing or sitting. Milieux (middlemen) were inexperienced paddlers in the center, advancing to higher roles with time. Bowsmen and steersmen earned twice the pay of middlemen due to their expertise. Voyageurs dressed practically for the wilderness: a cotton shirt, red toque, buckskin leggings, moose hide moccasins, hooded capote, and a red Assomption sash.

Central to the voyageurs' world were their canoes, ingeniously adapted from Indigenous designs like those of the Ojibwe and Algonquin. These birch bark vessels were lightweight, portable over portages, and capable of carrying immense loads. Two main types dominated: the Canot du Maitre (Montreal Canoe), 30-40 feet long, crewed by 8-12 men, and weighing over 200 pounds empty (requiring four men to carry). It was used for Montreal-to-Grand Portage hauls, navigating the Great Lakes' dangers with outbound loads of about 60 packages (90 pounds each), eight men's personal gear (40 pounds per bag), and provisions totaling around 8,000 pounds or four tons. Inbound, it carried furs.

The smaller Canot du Nord (North Canoe), 18-22 feet long and crewed by 2-6 men, was lighter (carried by two) and suited for interior routes to Grand Portage. Outbound, it transported mostly pelts, personal gear, and some provisions. Inbound loads included five 90-pound bales of merchandise, a bale of canal tobacco, a bale of kettles, a case of guns, a case of iron works, two rolls of twist tobacco, two bags of lead balls, two bags of lead shot, one bag of flour, one keg of sugar, two kegs of gunpowder, and 10 kegs of high wine (nine gallons each), plus men and gear—totaling about 3,000 pounds or 1.5 tons.

Canoes traveled in brigades of 4-8 vessels under a bourgeois (company partner), but the avant led during paddling, dictating route, pace, navigation, and safety. Paddles were hand-carved from cedar for strength and lightness: up to six feet for bowmen and steersmen (who often stood), shorter for middlemen (reaching chin or eye level). Blades were painted, often in red or patterns, and grips were prized for comfort amid thousands of daily strokes.

Routes varied by region. Great Lakes journeys stayed close to shore to evade sudden winds and waves that could capsize laden canoes, though shortcuts across wide bays tempted for speed. Interior paths involved smaller lakes and rivers with frequent portages—rough trails where crews hauled thousands of pounds, each man carrying two 90-pound "pièces." To avoid portages, they often ran rapids at high water (hiding rocks), sometimes emptying canoes first, with skilled paddlers accountable for damage or loss. "Lining" rapids used a 60-100 foot line from shore to pull the canoe while the steersman and gear remained aboard. Brigades followed the avant's orders, maintaining 50 strokes per minute.

The rise of these figures troubled French authorities. By 1680, Intendant Jacques Duchesneau estimated over 800 coureurs des bois out of a New France population of 9,700, noting that "there is not a family of any account but has sons, brothers, uncles, and nephews among these ‘Coureurs des bois.’” In 1681, an edict from the King of France forbade unlicensed trading, offering amnesty to those in the illegal trade. To control the oversupply of furs flooding Montreal—harming local merchants who provided clothing, muskets, and copper pots—a permit system was introduced. 

Only 25 permits were granted annually, authorizing a canoe with goods and three paddlers for trade in Indigenous villages. Trips, destinations, and voyageur names had to be registered with notaries. La Prairie seigneury, developing alongside these traders, was ideally positioned for dealings with Montreal merchants and English at Albany. By 1700, estimates placed voyageurs at 400-500 annually and coureurs des bois at 2,500-3,000. One governor lamented, "I cannot tell you how attractive this life is to all our youth. It consists of doing nothing, caring nothing, following every inclination, and getting out of the way of all restraint."

In essence, voyageurs and coureurs des bois were the daring architects of North America's fur trade expansion, blending French ingenuity with Indigenous knowledge. Their legacy endures in the exploration of Western Canada, as seen in figures like La Vérendrye in 1732, and in the countless families, including many ancestors, who embodied both roles—working for others as voyageurs or independently as coureurs des bois.

Courtesy of Drifting Cowboy as amended and updated by Grok xAI.